Dependent Clauses
A dependent clause is a clause that is unable to stand meaningfully by itself.
They are marked by having a non-optional auxiliary at the end.
Subordinate Clauses
A subordinate clause is one introduced by a subordinating conjunction in the matrix clause. A comma is used to separate a subordinate from its matrix. The conjunction is placed on the side of the main clause that is closest to the subordinate. The clauses can be put in either order.
ʔusu ru lu’i fu daru’i, ba pu’iba miku ra’u.
。うするをいふだるい、ばぷいばみく らう。
’usu ru lu’i fu daru’i, ba pu’iba miku ra’u.
1int prs;gno love 2tra because, 2gen ball red prs;sta
“I love you because your ball is red.”
Ba pu’iba miku ra’u, daru’i ’usu ru lu’i fu.
。ばぷいばみくらう、だるいうするをい ふ。
ba pu’iba miku ra’u, daru’i ’usu ru lu’i fu.
2gen ball red prs;sta, because 1int prs;gno love 2tra
“I love you because your ball is red.”
Here the subordinate clauses are highlighted. The cause is subordinate to the effect.
Location Adverbial Clauses
The word ma ま where is often used as a prefix for adpositions used as clausal conjunctions.
ʔusu lu’i fu madi, ba pu’iba miku qixa.
。うすをいふまで、ばぷいばみくねざ。
’usu lu’i fu ma-di, ba pu’iba miku qixa.
1int love 2tra where-up, 2gen ball red pst;dyn.
“I loved you before your ball turned red.”
Content Clauses
A content clause is one that takes the place of a noun. They begin with the complementiser li え and are separated from the matrix clause by commas. The auxiliary is not optional, and is given a low tone. Quote marks are used around reported speech, replacing the complementiser.
Li ’usu kissajisuka kugibiʔasi’a rusa, qixa puttu pa’illu.
。えうすきっさじすかくぎびっあせあるさ、ねざ ぷっとぱいっを。
li ’usu kissa-jisuka ku-gibiʔasi’a rusa, qixa puttu pa-’illu.
com 1int fight-ideology dat-east-Asia pst;gno, pst;dyn 1abl think-psv
“That we’ve always been at war with Eastasia, is what I think.”
Suma qixa kul·lani ’icipu, li quhu pixi kuffa dissudanagi qixa.
。すまねざくをわにいちぷ、えもほぴし ・ くっへでっすだなぎねざ。
suma qixa ku-lulani ’icipu, li quhu pixi kuffa dissu-danagi qixa.
1tra pst;dyn dat-queen ask, com 3ani;tra 1dat give new-decree pst;dyn
“I asked the queen if she had pardoned me.”
Mihu qixa ’i, “Filli mulisa ra’u?”
。みほねざい、もべっえむえさらうも。
mihu qixa ’i, “filli mulisa ra’u?”
3ani;int pst;dyn speak “2int fool prs;sta?”
“He said, ‘Are you a fool?’”
Questions and Requests
Questions and requests are main clauses, but have the same auxiliary movement as dependent clauses, and thus are treated alongside them here.
Interrogatives
An interrogative is a question sentence. There are two main types, polar questions and content questions.
Polar questions are one in which the answer is “yes” or “no”. They are spoken with a rising tone on the last word. The auxiliaries are used to answer.
“Does the queen love me?”
Ra’u. / Ji. / Ruku. / Pi.
。ぴ。るく。じ。らう。
prs;sta. / prs;neg. / fut;gno. / pst;sta.
“Yes.” / “No.” / “She will.” / “She did.”
“Is the queen not a bear?”
“Yes, she’s not.” / “No, she is.” / “Usually.”
If the focus of the question is on a particular noun, that noun receives a falling tone.
Content questions are ones in which the expected answer is more than just “yes” or “no”. These questions have a rising tone on the main question word itself.
“Whom does the queen love?”
“The king.” / “You.” / “No one.”
Imperatives
An imperative statement is an order.
Second person imperatives are directed to the listener. In these, the subject is dropped, a future auxiliary in the appropriate aspect is suffixed to the verb, and this verb complex is moved to the end of the sentence. These are spoken with a falling tone on the auxiliary.
“Love the queen!”